Stereotypes

It is important to learn about stereotypes before discussing the terms bias, prejudice, discrimination, and racism that are often used interchangeably in everyday conversation.

The modern definition of the word stereotype was first used by writer, journalist, and political commentator Walter Lippmann in 1922. He defined it as an oversimplified picture of the world, one that satisfies our need to see our social environment as a more understandable and manageable place than it really is.  

Lippmann theorized, because we are aware of much more than we have personally experienced, the only feeling that anyone can have about an event that they did not experience, is the feeling aroused by their mental image of that event.

Stereotypes are oversimplified generalizations about groups of people. Stereotypes can be based on race, ethnicity, age, gender, sexual orientation—almost any characteristic.

They may be positive (usually about one’s own group) but are often negative (usually toward other groups, such as when members of a dominant racial group suggest that a subordinate racial group is stupid or lazy).

In either case, the stereotype is a generalization that doesn’t take individual differences into account.  

We are all predisposed to believe stereotypes, especially individuals that possess a strong belief in the inherent fairness of the world, and the belief that America is the land of equal opportunity. These individuals believe people get what they deserve, and deserve what they get. This belief is also known as a just-world belief.

Common Just World Beliefs:

• We live in a post-racial society; slavery and systematic racism happened a long time ago. Any system of racism is a thing of the past.
• The United States is a great melting pot, in which immigrants from around the world come together and melt into one unified society through the process of assimilation.
• The cherished, motivating, but false ideologies of individualism and meritocracy.
• Belief in idioms like “pull yourself up by your bootstraps.”

Stereotype Creation

New stereotypes are rarely created; rather, they are recycled from subordinate groups that have assimilated into society and are reused to describe newly subordinate groups.

For example, many stereotypes that are currently used to characterize new immigrants were used earlier in American history to characterize immigrants.

In the United States, certain racial groups have been linked to stereotypes such as being good at math, athletics, and dancing. These stereotypes are so well-known that the average American wouldn’t hesitate if asked to identify which racial group in this country, for example, has a reputation for excelling in math. In short, when one stereotypes, one simply repeats the cultural mythology already present in a particular society.

While cultural and other differences do exist among the various American racial and ethnic groups, many of the views we have of such groups are unfounded and hence are stereotypes.  

Because stereotypes often involve emotions (generally hate or fear toward members of minority groups), they are hard to change even in the face of contradictory evidence.  

Donald J. Trump, June 16, 2015

Once stereotypes have formed, there are two main factors that explain their persistence. First, the cognitive effects of schematic processing make it so that when a member of a group behaves as we expect, the behavior confirms and even strengthens existing stereotypes. Second, the affective or emotional aspects of prejudice render logical arguments against stereotypes ineffective in countering the power of emotional responses.

Another example of a well-known stereotype involves beliefs about racial differences among athletes. As Hodge, Burden, Robinson, and Bennett (2008) point out, black male athletes are often believed to be more athletic, yet less intelligent, than their white male counterparts.

These beliefs persist despite a number of high-profile examples to the contrary. Sadly, such beliefs often influence how these athletes are treated by others and how they view themselves and their own capabilities. Stereotypes are universal. Whether or not you agree with a stereotype the content of stereotypes is generally well-known within in a given culture (Devine, 1989).

It is important to note that stereotypes are based on our perception, not reality. There is no such thing as a universal truth – people’s experiences and backgrounds play a huge role in the type of person and person they become.

Negative Stereotypes Can Trigger Social Deviance

Researchers at Stanford University have found another, particularly disturbing effect of subtle stereotypes. A series of five studies showed that people are more likely to lie, cheat, steal, or endorse doing so when they feel that they are being devalued simply because they belong to particular groups.  

For example, imagining a sexist or a racist comment from a boss made women and ethnic minorities more likely to intentionally do inaccurate work, start rumors, or ignore co-workers who need help. In one correlational study, the researchers asked 311 college students whether they worried about being seen negatively because of their ethnicity.

The more the college students worried or expected stereotyping, the more likely they were to report engaging in delinquent behavior, like skipping classes, verbally abusing someone, or vandalizing school property.

The researchers included Margaret Neale, Stanford GSB management professor; Geoffrey L. Cohen, Stanford psychology professor; and graduate students Belmi and Rodolfo Cortes Barragan. The paper was published in the Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.

Neale says she hopes the research can help people understand that the responsibility for criminal and deviant behavior lies not only with individuals, but with society.  

“We tend to make criminal behavior a dispositional attribute — a quality of the individual. But maybe we are part of the problem that is expressed by those people behaving badly,” she says. “We have huge agency and capacity to change the situation.”  

The research shows that even white Americans, a historically non-stigmatized group, engage in social deviance when they feel they are being negatively stereotyped.  

“We can create this in other groups, perhaps in almost any other group,” Neale says.

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